Technical developments have made it possible to identify people by biometrics. The concept ‘biometrics’ refers to an individual’s characteristics and to a process. As for a person’s characteristics, the term captures both biological and behavioral features.[1] The process, on the other hand, entails automated capturing and processing of such characteristics. The use of biometrics – e.g. establishing identity by use of new technology through scanning individuals and cross-referencing their biometric data with existing databases – is on the increase, for civilian as well as non-civilian uses, for counter-terrorism activities and beyond. This raises a number of legal questions, in several legal areas. For the purpose of this research, the focus is on the interplay between the legal regimes of European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and the International Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC). In this way, the research seeks to cover State obligations, (what the State can do, must do, or is not at all permitted to do) in the transitional spectrum from ‘normal peace-time’ to armed conflict.
It is no longer a controversial position to hold that human rights law remains applicable also during armed conflict. Furthermore, human rights law is applicable to conflict, subject only to derogation. Lastly, when LOAC and human rights apply, LOAC is considered lex specialis, meaning it will trump human rights law in times of armed conflict if there are situations when the regimes are so much at odds that they cannot be reconciled. This may seem pretty straightforward, but if a human rights body such as the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) seeks to take account of LOAC in any way, first the applicability of the latter must be determined. On the other hand, turning to the ECtHR may be an effective way to redress for those who seek a remedy when a State has failed to comply with the laws. (No such option exists under LOAC). This has given rise to a growing corpus of case-law considering potential human rights violations during armed conflict. However, the use of biometrics by armed forces (or private actors, on account of the armed forces, or the State) is certainly not limited to the context of armed conflict. In fact, the use of biometrics in ‘normal peace-time’ continues to increase, for counter-terrorist activities as well as more general security measures. In this regard, a primary human rights concern pertains to the right to privacy. The substantive right to private life is recognized in all major human rights treaties and in many national constitutions. It should be noted that the usage of biometrics throughout the transitional spectrum, is likely to engage additional substantial rights protected by the ECHR. This could include but is not limited to, the right to life (Article 2), the right to liberty and security (Article 5) the right to an effective remedy (Article 13), and naturally, the right to non-discrimination (Article 14). Furthermore, it is foreseeable that the right to freedom of expression (Article 10), which incorporates the right to information may also come into play, as will the protection of specific procedural rights developed and consolidated by the ECtHR in its case law.
Although the application of the ECHR in matters with a nexus to armed conflict generally speaking can be seen as a comparatively more recent development, the ECtHR was first seized by the broader issue of data handling and the right to private life almost 35 years ago, in the case Leander v Sweden.[2] Since then, the notion of digital privacy, as a sub-category of the right to private life has continued to emerge. Furthermore, the right to private life, as protected by Article 8 of the ECHR, has also expanded to protect biometric privacy. It is clear from the case-law, that the ECtHR is aware of the data-life cycle in that the ECtHR takes a three-pronged approach, and is scrutinizing 1) the collection, 2) retention and 3) disclosure of all data, not limited to biometrics.
Analysing the inter-play between LOAC and ECHR regarding biometrics and seeking to cover the transitional spectrum gives rise to numerous legal questions. For example: What obligations does a State party to the ECHR have with regard to biometrics and the right to private life under Article 8 a) In peace time? b) When the life of the nation is threatened? c) in armed conflict? What are the positive obligations of a State, what actions are required from the State vis-à-vis third-party actors? To what extent can a State lawfully derogate from Article 8 obligations in relation to biometrics? What questions of extra-territorial jurisdiction may foreseeably arise by the use of biometrics? Is non-compliance with Article 36 of the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts pertaining to biometrics potentially of concern to the ECtHR?
This paper investigates the relationship between LOAC and human rights law as protected under the ECHR with specific regard to the use of biometrics, and discuss some of the essential questions raised above. In order to do so, it first briefly outlines the key advancements made concerning the inter-play between LOAC and the ECHR (section I). In this manner, the discussion seeks to cover the transitional spectrum from peace-time to non-international and international armed conflict alike. Next, the notion of biometrics is seen through the lens of the ECHR which protects the right to private life, and the sub-group of data privacy, including biometrics under Article 8 (section II). This is followed by a discussion concerning additional substantial rights that may come into play (section III) and procedural rights protected by the ECHR, such as the right to effective remedies (section IV). Then, the paper reconnects with the transitional spectrum, and some concepts that may be highly relevant to the use of biometrics such as derogations and extraterritorial jurisdiction are highlighted (section V). The article concludes with final remarks (section VI).
[1] Examples of behavioral features include blinking patterns, a person’s gait, driving styles or patterns of a person’s preferred game strategies. Biological characteristics include aspects of electromagnetic signals generated by heart and brain, voice characteristics, face-recognition, fingerprints, iris recognition, DNA or hand veins.[2] ECtHR, Leander v Sweden (Application no. 9248/81), Judgment, 26 March 1987. The question concerned whether or not allowing the data subject access to the information security authorities held about him violated his right to privacy.