To Örebro University

The effect of treatment with percutaneous estradiol (100µg estradiol/24h) during two weeks perimenstrually on the number and severity of menstrual migraine attacks was studied in 27 women in a randomized, placebo-controlled double blind cross over trial. We were not able to demonstrate any difference between estradiol supplementation and placebo on the number or severity of migraine attacks but both  regimens showed significant effects compared to pretreatment. 

Objective: The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of different maternal Body Mass Index (BMI) classes on the risk of postpartum endometritis, wound infection, and breast abscess after different modes of delivery. Secondly to estimate how the risk of postpartum infection varies with different maternal BMI groups after induction of labor and after obstetric anal sphincter injuries.

Methods: A population-based observational study including women who gave birth during eight years (N = 841,780). Data were collected from three Swedish Medical Health Registers, the Swedish Medical Birth Register, the Swedish National Patient Register, and the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register. Outcomes were defined by ICD-10 codes given within eight weeks postpartum. The reference population was uninfected women. Odds ratios were determined using Mantel-Haenszel technique. Year of delivery, maternal age, parity and smoking in early pregnancy were considered as confounders.

Results: There was a dose-dependent relationship between an increasing maternal BMI and a higher risk for postpartum infections. Women in obesity class II and III had an increased risk for endometritis after normal vaginal delivery aOR 1.45 (95% CI: 1.29-1.63) and for wound infections after cesarean section aOR 3.83 (95% CI: 3.39-4.32). There was no difference in how maternal BMI affected the association between cesarean section and wound infection, regardless of whether it was planned or emergent. Women in obesity class II and III had a lower risk of breast abscess compared with normal-weight women, aOR 0.47 (95% CI: 0.38-0.58). The risk of endometritis after labor induction decreased with increasing maternal BMI. The risk of wound infection among women with an obstetrical sphincter injury decreased with increasing BMI.

Conclusion: This study provides new knowledge about the impact of maternal BMI on the risk of postpartum infections after different modes of delivery. There was no difference in how BMI affected the association between cesarean section and wound infections, regardless of whether it was a planned cesarean section or an emergency cesarean section.

The purpose was to evaluate the association between maternal characteristics, obstetrical interventions/complications and postpartum wound infections (WI), urinary tract infection (UTI) and endometritis. Furthermore, this study aimed to determine the time from delivery to onset of infections after discharge from the hospital. Three large Swedish Medical Health Registers were scrutinized for the period 2005-2012. A total of 582,576 women had 795,072 deliveries. Women with diagnosis codes for WIs, UTIs or endometritis, from delivery to 8 weeks postpartum, were compared to non-infected women. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated. Increasing age and body mass index (BMI) were both associated with increasing prevalence of postpartum infections. WIs were most strongly associated with cesarean section (CS) (OR 17.2; 95% CI 16.1-18.3), 3rd and 4th degree tears (OR 10.7%; 95% CI 9.80-11.9) and episiotomy (OR 10.2; 95% CI 8.94-11.5). Endometritis was associated with anemia (OR 3.16; 95% CI 3.01-3.31) and manual placental removal (OR 2.72; 95% CI 2.51-2.95). UTI was associated with emergency CS (OR 3.46; 95% CI 3.07-3.89) and instrumental delivery (OR 3.70; 95% CI 3.29-4.16). For women discharged from the delivery hospital the peak occurrence of UTI was 6 days postpartum, while for WIs and endometritis it was 7 days postpartum.

Background: Postpartum infections are a common cause of morbidity after childbirth. Vitamin D deficiency has been shown to increase the risk for several infections in a non-pregnant population. Vitamin D deficiency has been described as common in pregnant women.

Objective: To investigate whether vitamin D deficiency in pregnant women in labor was associated with an increased risk of overall postpartum infectious morbidity within eight weeks of delivery. A secondary aim was to estimate the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among pregnant women in Linkoping, Sweden at the time of delivery.

Material and methods: Serum vitamin D levels in labor were analyzed for 1397 women. Vitamin D deficiency was defined as serum levels <50 nmol/L. All ICD-10 codes given to the women eight weeks postpartum were reviewed and postpartum infections were defined as the presence of an ICD-10 code suggestive of infection. The prevalence of postpartum infections among women with sufficient vitamin D levels was compared with women with vitamin D deficiency. Adjusted Odds Ratios and 95% confidence intervals for postpartum infections were calculated using multivariate logistic regression analysis.

Results: Fifty eight per cent of the women had serum vitamin D levels <50 nmol/L. The proportion of women with vitamin D deficiency varied, as expected, with season. No association between vitamin D deficiency and postpartum infections was found. For vitamin D 25-50 nmol/L the adjusted Odds Ratio was 0.85 (95% confidence interval 0.56-1.29) and for vitamin D <25 nmol/L the adjusted Odds Ratio was 1.15 (95% confidence interval 0.66-2.03). Women who smoked or who had a cesarean section had an increased risk of postpartum infections.

Conclusions: Vitamin D deficiency was more common than previously reported in Swedish pregnant women. No association between vitamin D deficiency and postpartum infections was found. Other well-known risk factors for postpartum infection were identified.

Purpose: Previous studies have emphasised that women with pre-existing mood disorders are more inclined to discontinue hormonal contraceptive use. However, few studies have examined the effects of combined oral contraceptives (COC) on mood in women with previous or ongoing mental disorders.

Materials and methods: This is a supplementary analysis of an investigator-initiated, double-blinded, randomised clinical trial during which 202 women were treated with either a COC (1.5mg estradiol and 2.5mg nomegestrolacetate) or placebo during three treatment cycles. The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview was used to collect information on previous or ongoing mental disorders. The primary outcome measure was the total change score in five mood symptoms on the Daily Record of Severity of Problems (DRSP) scale in the intermenstrual phase of the treatment cycle.

Results: Women with ongoing or previous mood, anxiety or eating disorders allocated to COC had higher total DRSP -scores during the intermenstrual phase of the treatment cycle in comparison with corresponding women randomised to placebo, mean difference 1.3 (95% CI 0.3-2.3). In contrast, among women without mental health problems, no difference in total DRSP -scores between COC- and placebo users was noted. Women with a risk use of alcohol who were randomised to the COC had higher total DRSP -scores than women randomised to placebo, mean difference 2.1 (CI 95% 1.0-3.2).

Conclusions: Women with ongoing or previous mental disorders or risk use of alcohol have greater risk of COC-induced mood symptoms. This may be worth noting during family planning and contraceptive counselling.

Objective: The aim was to explore students' and teachers' attitudes towards horizontal and vertical integration and other components of the curriculum, and to compare these results with data from a study at our medical school published in 2002.

Methods: A questionnaire with 17 questions regarding different components of our curriculum was sent to students and staff at our medical school. They were asked to rate the importance of different components on a Likert scale from 1-6. We compared the answers between the two groups, and also compared them with the results from 2002.

Results: Horizontal and vertical integration were rated as very important components (Teachers (n=283) median 5 and 5, Students (n=596) 6 and 5 respectively). Students valued lectures and clinical rotations more highly than teachers. Teachers considered laboratory training, training in searching scientific literature, scientific projects, basic education in ethics, reading and discussion of fictional literature, interprofessional components and examinations as significantly more important than the students did.

Conclusions: Attitudes have remained positive towards horizontal and vertical integration despite major changes in the curriculum. The majority of the components of our curriculum were well appreciated, indicating that our curriculum is robust, but some components warrant inspection and possible revision.

Combined hormonal contraceptives [combined oral contraceptives (COCs)] have been available for over 50 years and the impact of this invention may not be overestimated. Today over 100 million women are current users and in Western Europe and the United States approximately 80% of women of fertile ages can be considered as ever-users. Over the years several drawbacks have been identified and media alarms on risks are frequently presented, resulting in suboptimal compliance and low compliance and continuation rates. Poor compliance and discontinuation is a big problem and is not generally identified by prescribers. During ideal use COCs offer very good protection against unwanted pregnancies, however there is a big problem with compliance and continuation and thus the ‘real-life’ efficacy is much lower. Reasons for poor compliance include side effects and fear of side effects and it is crucial that the prescriber gives the individual woman thorough and balanced information on the benefits and risks. Most well known is the increased risk of venous thromboembolism, but also an elevated risk of arterial thrombosis and several types of cancer has been reported. The risk estimates are low but according to the large number of users a substantial number of extra cases will occur. However, use of COCs also offers several additional health benefits with significant impact on morbidity and quality of life. COC use is associated with a substantial decrease in the risk of ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer and colorectal cancer. Moreover, COCs are a major option of treatment for women suffering from heavy menstrual bleeding and dysmenorrhea as well as hirsutism and acne vulgaris. The net effect of the additional health effects of COC- use may very well be positive, i.e. a slight increase in life expectancy.

Objective: To investigate the effects of increased exposition to female sex hormones and physical strain on the prevalence of low back pain (LBP) in women. To study the etJect of increased exposition to female sex hormones on spinal sagiual mobility.

Background: Scientific data and clinical observations suggest an increased prevalence of LBP in women as compared with men, especially in athletes. Estrogen receptors arc present in the musculo-skeletal apparatus and in the central nervous system and female sex hormones have been suggested to affect the stability of the pelvic joints and the perception of pain. The impaired stability together with a hypermobile spine may cause increased isometric muscular work, and as a consequence, pain. Also the perception of pain may be altered by female sex hormones. Because LBP is more common in female athletes than in male athletes, increased exposition to both female sex hormones and physical strain may affect the occurrence of LBP in women. Such an exposition occurs during pregnancy, with a well-known increase in prevalence of LBP.

Methods: 28 women with an increased exposition to physical strain (female soccer players) and a history of LBP underwent a clinical examination and were then observed prospectively during 6 months to study variations in the occurence and severity of LBP during the different phases of the menstrual cycle. 716 female elite athletes and 113 controls answered a questionnaire with regard to their use of oral contraceptives (OCs) and the occurrence of LBP. 1103 women, 55 or 56 years old, answered a questionnaire concerning the occurrence and severity ofLBP and use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT). 52 women with and 67 women without a history of disabling LBP during a pregnancy in 1983-84 answered a questionnaire concerning LBP during subsequent pregnancies. 24 young, healthy women were followed prospectively over a period of 12 months to measure spinal sagittal mobility before use of OCs and after 3 and 12 months of OC-use.

Results: No differences were observed with regard to occurrence or severity of LBP between the different phases of the menstrual cycle or between OC-users and non-users. LBP was more common in the athletes as compared with the controls. The prevalence ofLBP was slightly increased among the HRT-users (OR 1.30; 95% CI 1.02-1.41) compared with non-users. 94% of the women with previous disabling LBP during pregnancy reported LBP in a subsequent pregnancy compared with 44% of the controls. Also concequenccs of LBP, as sick-leave, were more common in the group of women with disabling LBP during a previous pregnancy. No change in spinal sagittal mobility was observed in the group of women before and after the women began to use OCs.

Conclusions: Use of oral contraceptives does not seem to increase the prevalence of LBP. There is nothing in our results to suggest that women with LBP with an unspecific origin should discontinue their use of oral contraceptives. Postmenopausal women who use HRT had a slightly increased prevalence of LBP, but this increase is probably of no clinical significance. Women who had suffered from LBP during a previous pregnancy run a high risk for LBP in the future, both during a subsequent pregnancy and during the non-pregnant state. Increased exposition to exogenously administered female sex hormones does not increase spinal sagittal mobility in young, healthy, nullipareous women.

Study Design: Cross-sectional study with two age cohorts.

Objective: To assess whether women receiving hormone replacement therapy after menopause have a higher prevalence of back problems than women who do not receive such treatment.

Background: Back pain is a common medical problem: throughout life and especially during pregnancy. Hormonal factors have been proposed as a possible contributor.

Patients and Methods: A validated postal questionnaire was sent in early 1995 to all 1324 women of 55 years and 56 years of age residing in Linkoping, Sweden. This questionnaire included questions about current rent hormone replacement treatment, previous and current back problems, medical care for back problems, parity, exercise and smoking habits, and occupation.

Results: The questionnaire was returned by 84.7% of the women. There was a significant, albeit weak, positive association between current use of hormone replacement treatment and low back pain. Previous back problems during pregnancy was a strong risk factor for current back pain, whereas neither current smoking nor regular physical exercise was a risk factor according to multiple logistic regression analysis. The interaction of smoking and an occupation involving heavy lifting significantly affected back pain.

Conclusions: Women receiving hormone replacement treatment had a slightly, but significantly, higher prevalence of current back pain than nonusers (48% vs. 42%, respectively, P < 0.05), which could not be explained by differences in occupation, smoking habits, or current physical activity. Although the association be-tween hormone replacement therapy and back problems is weak and probably of minor clinical importance, it is speculated that hormonal effects on joints and ligaments may be involved.

Important elements in the curriculum at the Faculty of Health Sciences in Link ping are vertical integration, i.e. integration between the clinical and basic science sections of the curriculum, and horizontal integration between different subject areas. Integration throughout the whole curriculum is time-consuming for both teachers and students and hard work is required for planning, organization and execution. The aim was to assess the importance of vertical and horizontal integration in an undergraduate medical curriculum, according to opinions among students and teachers. In a questionnaire 102 faculty teachers and 106 students were asked about the importance of 14 different components of the undergraduate medical curriculum including vertical and horizontal integration. They were asked to assign between one and six points to each component (6 points = extremely important for the quality of the curriculum; 1 point = unimportant). Students as well as teachers appreciated highly both forms of integration. Students scored horizontal integration slightly but significantly higher than the teachers (median 6 vs 5 points; p=0.009, Mann-Whitney U-test), whereas teachers scored vertical integration higher than students (6 vs 5; p=0.019, Mann-Whitney U-test). Both students and teachers considered horizontal and vertical integration to be highly important components of the undergraduate medical programme. We believe both kinds of integration support problem-based learning and stimulate deep and lifelong learning and suggest that integration should always be considered deeply when a new curriculum is planned for undergraduate medical education.

Background: Only few indications have appeared in the literature concerning a possible relationship between the use of oral contraceptives and low back pain. In our,daily work we often meet women who have been recommended to abandon their use of oral contraceptives depending on coexisting low back pain. In order to assess the opinions of a possible relationship between oral contraceptives and low back pain this study was undertaken.

Methods: A validated questionnaire was sent out to physicians, physiotherapists and midwives dealing with either contraceptive counselling or low back pain. A modified questionnaire was sent to medical- and physiotherapist students to assess whether the opinions were a result of the education or the working experience.

Results: A total of 225 questionnaires were sent out and 206 (91%) were returned. Sixteen percent thought there was a relationship between the use of oral contraceptives and risk of low back pain. Thirty percent had seen patients with low back pain that was interpreted as being affected by use of oral contraceptives. Twenty-five percent recommended at least some patients with low back pain to change their contraceptive method. Among the students there was a difference in opinion between the first and the last year students indicating that their opinions had been influenced by their education.

Conclusions: Evidently many professionals dealing with oral contraceptives and low back pain believe that there is a relationship between oral contraceptives and low back pain, despite the lack of scientific evidence. These recommendations might influence the contraceptive safety for the individual woman and the possible relationship between use of oral contraceptives and low back pain should therefore be more thoroughly investigated before general recommendations are given.

One hundred and fifty players in a female senior soccer division, starting up a new season, were examined for past injuries and persisting symptoms. An incidence of 0.18 injury/player/year was found, which is not significantly different from previously reported injury rates for male soccer. Sprains to the lower extremity and shinsplints were the most common previous injuries. Forty-three percent of the players had some kind of persistent symptom as a result of a past injury. Symptoms from previous ankle and knee sprains and from overuse injuries were the most common. Players who had sustained an ankle joint injury were more prone to have persistent symptoms (p < 0.05) if they had persistent mechanical instability. Compared to previous retrospective studies on men's soccer, the women showed a higher rate of previous patellar dislocations. These injuries often caused persistent symptoms. The women showed fewer serious knee injuries. This might depend on a real difference in incidence or is just a reflection of female players ceasing to play soccer after a severe knee injury.

Female sex hormones have been suggested to affect the risk of low back pain. One reason is the fact that back pain is a very common symptom during pregnancy. It also seems to be a more common problem among female than male athletes, e.g. in soccer. Although there are few scientific data supporting a relationship between female sex hormones, use of oral contraceptives and low back pain, many doctors and physiotherapists advise women with low back pain to avoid oral contraceptives. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether low back pain fluctuated during the menstrual cycle and differed between women using and not using oral contraceptives. A questionnaire was sent to 12 female soccer teams; 261 players answered and 50 players (28 with back pain and 22 controls) fulfilled the prospective study. At baseline the players underwent a thorough clinical examination and then filled in a diary concerning menstrual data, back pain, training and matches during one season. A total of 296 menstrual cycles was analysed. No difference in prevalence or severity of back pain was seen between the different phases of the menstrual cycle or between users and non-users of oral contraceptives. Our data do not support the hypothesis that low back pain is influenced by hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle or by use of oral contraceptives.

Objective: To demonstrate the effects of 2-year transdermal continuous combined low-dose estradiol (0.025 mg/day) and norethisterone acetate (0.125 mg/day) on lipid/lipoprotein profile and coagulation/fibrinolysis.

Methods: A double-blind, randomized, multicenter, parallel, 1-year trial enrolled 266 healthy women at least 2 years post menopause. Patients received either 0.025 mg estradiol and 0.125 mg norethisterone acetate daily or placebo transdermally. One hundred and thirty five women completed a second year open follow-up (96 had used Estragest TTS, 39 placebo during the first year), where all women had the estradiol/norethisterone patch. Lipid/lipoprotein profile and coagulation/fibrinolysis parameters were studied at 0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 weeks.

Results: In women on estradiol/norethisterone total cholesterol, Lp(a) and VLDL cholesterol decreased significantly more than in the placebo group after 24 weeks and LDL cholesterol after 48 weeks. Women on estradiol/norethisterone had no change in HDL, triglycerides or Lp(a), an increased HDL/total cholestrol ratio and decreased LDL, VLDL and total cholesterol at 48 weeks compared to placebo. Women with active treatment also showed a significant reduction compared with the placebo group of Factor VII and antithrombin III at 24 and 48 weeks and a reduction of fibrinogen at 24 weeks. These changes persisted over the second year.

Conclusions: A continuous combined low-dose transdermal patch daily delivering 0.025 mg estradiol and 0.125 mg norethisterone acetate provided beneficial effects on lipid/lipoprotein profile and coagulation/fibrinolysis. The changes were similar to those previously described after higher dose oral and transdermal estrogen/progestogen regimens. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Objective: We investigated the effects of 2-year transdermal continuous combined estradiol (0.025 mg/day) and norethisterone acetate (0.125 mg/day) (Estragest TTS) on bleeding and on the endometrium.

Design: This double-blind, randomized, multicenter, parallel, 1-year trial enrolled 266 healthy women at least 2 years past menopause with intact uteri. Patients received a transdermal patch delivering either 0.025 mg estradiol and 0.125 mg norethisterone acetate daily or placebo. Of the 266 women initially included, 135 (96 Estragest TTS, 39 placebo) completed a second year open follow-up, where all women had the estradiol/norethisterone patch. Endometrial biopsies were performed at weeks 0, 48 (n = 171), and 96 (n =109). Effects on endometrial morphology and uterine bleeding were studied.

Results: The overall incidence of endometrial hyperplasia after treatment with the estradiol/norethisterone acetate patch for one year was 0.8% with only one case of atypical hyperplasia. There were no clinically significant changes in endometrial thickness in either treatment group. The proportion of bleed-free patients with the estradiol/norethisterone acetate transdermal system increased from 55% in cycles 1-3 to 83% in cycles 10-12. By the 12th cycle, 92% of patients receiving estradiol/norethisterone acetate patches were bleed-free. No additional hyperplasia was seen during the second year follow-up.

Conclusions: A continuous combined transdermal patch delivering 0.025 mg estradiol/day and 0.125 mg norethisterone acetate/day provided good endometrial protection. The dose maintained a consistently high rate of amenorrhea in postmenopausal women.

Objective: To identify the long-term risk for low back pain among women with previous severe low back pain during pregnancy.

Methods: In a previous prospective study, 79 pregnant women developed low back pain severe enough to require sick leave. Twelve years later a questionnaire was sent to 62 of these women and 84 controls who did not develop severe low back pain during pregnancy. The questionnaire asked about occupation, low back pain in general and during later pregnancies, and sick leave due to low back pain. There were also questions regarding use of oral contraceptives and its possible relation to low back pain.

Results: The response rate was 84% in the back pain group and 80% among controls. The two groups were similar according to the percentage of women having had another pregnancy (33 of 52 [63%] versus 39 of 67 [58%]) but ten (19%) of the women with previous low back pain stated they had refrained from another pregnancy because of their fear of low back pain compared with only one control. Almost all women (31 of 33) with previous severe low back pain experienced the same symptoms in a subsequent pregnancy, compared with 17 of 39 (44%) controls. Even when they were not pregnant, women with previous low back pain suffered more often and used more sick leave due to low back pain (44 of 52 versus 43 of 67, chi(2) = 5.68, P < .05). The location (sacroiliac joint or lumbar affection) of the previous low back pain did not affect the long-term prognosis. In a logistic regression model, previous low back pain during pregnancy was the only independent risk factor for low back pain during a subsequent pregnancy, whereas an occupation involving physical demand did not affect the results. However, together with previous low back pain during pregnancy, heavy occupation increased the risk for current nonpregnant low back pain.

Conclusion: Women with severe low back pain during pregnancy have an extremely high risk for experiencing a new episode of severe low back pain during another pregnancy and when not pregnant.

Background: Exogenous and endogenous female sex steroids may influence the risk of low back pain. The fact that back pain is a very common symptom during pregnancy supports this theory. Back pain is also more common among female than male athletes. Oral contraceptives have been suggested to increase the risk of low back pain.

Objective: To evaluate whether the prevalence of low back pain is higher among oral contraceptive users than non-users and if it differs between women taking part in different sports.

Methods:  A questionnaire was sent to female elite athletes in volleyball (n=205), basketball (n=150), and soccer (n=361) as well as to age-matched controls (n=113). The questionnaire comprised questions about age, constitution, occupation, parity and use of contraceptive method as well as previous and current back pain and possible consequences of the back problems.

Results: The response rate was 85%. Between 42% and 52% of the women in the different groups used oral contraceptives. The groups were similar in most background variables, except that the volleyball and basketball players were taller. The prevalence of current low back pain was between 21% and 34% in the different athlete groups with an average of 30%, whereas only 18% of the controls suffered from low back pain (p<0.01). The prevalence of low back pain within each group, athletes as well as controls, was similar in women who used, and did not use oral contraceptives.

Conclusions: This study does not support the theory that low back pain is affected by the use of oral contraceptives. Instead, constitutional factors and mechanical stress during intense physical activity is probably more important.

Objective: to study the body mass index (BMI) in women seeking maternity health care during early pregnancy in Sweden, and to show trends for a period of more than 20 years.

Study design: register study.

Methods: data from the maternity health programme on consecutively delivered women in two Swedish hospitals were collected for the years 1978, 1986, 1992, 1997 and 2001. All women were weighed at their first midwife visit between 8 and 10 weeks of gestation and height was also measured.

Results: data on 4883 women were collected. Data on weight were available for 4490 (92%) women and data on BMI were available for 4378 (90%) women. The age-adjusted average weight increased from 59.5 kg in 1978 to 68.2 kg in 2001, and the BMI increased from 21.7 in 1978 to 24.7 in 2001. In 2001, 38.6% of the women had a BMI > 25 compared with 11.2 in 1978. In 2001, 11.6% of the women were obese compared with 2.2% in 1978.

Conclusions: during the last two decades, an alarming increase in weight has occurred in Swedish women of childbearing age.

Objective: To study whether increased maternal weight and other factors of importance is associated with higher birth weights of the children over a period of almost 25 years.

Design: Retrospective cohort study. Setting. Delivery wards in southeast Sweden. Sample. A total of 4,330 delivered women and their children from the years 1978, 1986, 1992, 1997, and 2001.

Methods: Analysis of covariance was used to evaluate the importance of the mother's body mass index (BMI) on the children's birth weights during the study years and smoking, parity, employment, gestational age, and the age of the mothers were adjusted for.

Main outcome measures: Weight of the offspring in relation to maternal BMI and possible confounders such as smoking, parity, employment, gestational age, and the age of the mother.

Results: Between 1978 and 1992, there was an increase in birth weight in each of the four BMI categories (i.e. BMI20, 20-24.9, 25-29.9 and 30, respectively) even after adjustments were made for relevant background characteristics (p0.001). However, between 1992 and 2001, the birth weight for children whose mothers had a BMI of less than 20 or between 20 and 24.9 decreased (p0.001). For almost every study year, the mothers' BMI was of significant influence on the children's birth weights. However, the proportion of variance explained by the models (i.e. the adjusted R2) was not substantially altered when the mother's BMI was excluded from the models.

Conclusion: Maternal BMI is of significance to explain trends in infants' birth weight over time, but not of sole importance.

Aim: To study cord blood concentrations of adiponectin and leptin in children born by normal weight, overweight and obese mothers and to study these parameters in relation to a weight gain intervention programme for obese mothers.

Methods: Ten millilitre cord blood was collected and analysed for leptin and adiponectin concentrations in children with gestational age >37weeks born by 60 normal weight, 45 overweight and 145 obese mothers. 82 obese mothers took part in a weight gain intervention programme.

Results: Concentrations of leptin and adiponectin were higher in cord blood from children of overweight and obese mothers compared with children of normal weight mothers (leptin: Md 13.2, 30, 3 and 90.2ng/mL respectively, p<0.001; adiponectin 35.9, 205.4, 213.8ng/L p<0.001). No differences were found between overweight and obese mothers. The weight gain intervention programme for obese pregnant women had significant effects on the weight gain during pregnancy but had no effects on cord blood serum concentrations of leptin and adiponectin.

Conclusion: Cord blood leptin and adiponectin concentrations were higher in children born by overweight or obese women compared with children of normal weight mothers. A weight gain intervention programme for obese pregnant women did not affect these results. Intrauterine exposition to high concentrations of leptin and adiponectin may play a role in weight development later in life.

Background: Maternal obesity is accompanied by maternal and fetal complications during and after pregnancy. The risks seem to increase with degree of obesity. Leptin has been suggested to play a role in the development of obesity related complications. Whether maternal leptin levels differ between obese and morbidly obese women, during and after pregnancy, have to our knowledge not been previously described. Neither has the association between maternal leptin levels and gestational weight gain in obese women. The aim was to evaluate if maternal plasma leptin levels were associated with different degrees of maternal obesity and gestational weight gain.

Methods: Prospective cohort study including women categorized as obesity class I-III (n = 343) and divided into three gestational weight gain groups (n = 304). Maternal plasma leptin was measured at gestational week 15, 29 and 10 weeks postpartum. Maternal Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated from early pregnancy weight. Gestational weight gain was calculated using maternal weight in delivery week minus early pregnancy weight. The mean value and confidence interval of plasma-leptin were analysed with a two-way ANOVA model. Interaction effect between BMI and gestational weight gain group was tested with a two-way ANOVA model.

Results: The mean maternal leptin concentrations were significantly higher in women with obesity class III compared to women in obesity class I, at all times when plasma leptin were measured. The mean leptin concentrations were also significantly higher in women with obesity class II compared to women in obesity class I, except in gestational week 29. There was no difference in mean levels of plasma leptin between the gestational weight gain groups. No significant interaction between BMI and gestational weight gain group was found.

Conclusions: Plasma leptin levels during and after pregnancy were associated with obesity class but not with degree of gestational weight gain. These results are in concordance with epidemiological findings where the risk of obstetric complications increases with increased maternal obesity class. The effect on obstetric outcome by degree of gestational weight gain is less pronounced than the adverse effects associated with maternal obesity

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess whether maternal prepregnancy body mass index was associated with the use of antiemetic drugs in early pregnancy and/or with the occurrence of hyperemesis gravidarum.

STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective, population-based, cohort study. Women who delivered singleton infants (n = 749,435) from 19952003 were evaluated concerning the use of antiemetic drugs in early pregnancy (data available from 1995). Women who delivered singleton infants (n = 942,894) from 1992-2001 were evaluated concerning hospitalization because of hyperemesis gravidarum (data available until 2001). Adjusted odds ratios were determined by Mantel- Haenszel technique and were used as estimates of relative risk (RR).

RESULTS: Underweight pregnant women were more likely to use antiemetic drugs (RR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.14-1.24) and to become hospitalized for hyperemesis gravidarum (RR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.33-1.54) compared with ideal weight women. Obese women were less likely to use antiemetic drugs (RR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.89-0.97) and less likely to require hospitalization because of hyperemesis (RR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.85-0.95) compared with women with an ideal body mass index.

CONCLUSION: The use of antiemetic drugs and the occurrence of hyperemesis gravidarum are related to maternal body composition.

Objective: To minimise obese women's total weight gain during pregnancy to less than 7 kg and to investigate the delivery and neonatal outcome.

Design: A prospective case-control intervention study.

Setting: Antenatal care clinics in the southeast region of Sweden.

Population: One hundred fifty-five pregnant women in an index group and one hundred ninety-three women in a control group.

Methods: An intervention programme with weekly motivational talks and aqua aerobic classes for obese pregnant women.

Main outcome measures: Weight gain in kilograms, delivery and neonatal outcome.

Results: The index group had a significantly lower weight gain during pregnancy compared with the control group (P < 0.001). The women in the index group weighed less at the postnatal check- up compared with the weight registered in early pregnancy (P < 0.001). The percentage of women in the index group who gained less than 7 kg was greater than that of women in the control group who gained less than 7 kg (P = 0.003). The percentage of nulliparous women in this group was greater than that in the control group (P = 0.018). In addition, the women in the index group had a significantly lower body mass index at the postnatal check-up, compared with the control group (P < 0.001). There were no differences between the index group and the control group regarding birthweight, gestational age and mode of delivery.

Conclusion: The intervention programme was effective in controlling weight gain during pregnancy and did not affect delivery or neonatal outcome.

The objective of this study was to investigate whether pregnancy, delivery, and neonatal outcome among obese pregnant women who took part in an intervention study for weight restriction differed from a group of obese pregnant women attending regular antenatal care. The intervention group consisted of 155 obese pregnant women and 193 obese pregnant women who formed a control group. We found that a weight gain restriction of less than 7 kg during pregnancy is safe for both the mother and the neonate.

Objective: to investigate women's attitudes and satisfaction with a weight-gain intervention programme during pregnancy.

Design: exploratory, descriptive study. Data were collected via interviews.

Setting: University hospital.

Participants: 56 obese pregnant women who attended antenatal care at the University Hospital of Linkoping's obstetrical department and took part in an intervention programme aimed at reducing weight gain during pregnancy, between November 2003 and August 2004.

Findings: the interviews comprised several questions concerning attitudes and opinions of the programme. Most of the women expressed positive experiences with the treatment and would attend the programme if they became pregnant again. Most of the women stated that they had changed their eating and exercise habits during pregnancy, and almost all of them had continued with these new habits. Even though the weight gain goal of a maximum 6.9 kg was reached by less than half of the participants, most of the women were satisfied with their weight gain. A total of 71.4% of the women participated in aqua aerobics classes. They stated that they were most satisfied with this form of exercise, and that it also was a good social experience.

Key conclusions and implications for practice: a pregnant woman herself must be actively involved in setting her own goals to prevent excessive weight gain during pregnancy. Considerable effort and support must be placed on discussing strategies, pitfalls and risks. In order for the woman to maintain the change in attitude and habits, she must probably be given continuous feedback and reinforcement over the long term. 

Objective: To investigate the effects of a weight-gain restriction program on weight development or weight maintenance 2 years after childbirth. Design. A case-control intervention study. Setting. Antenatal care clinics in the southeast of Sweden. Sample. One hundred and fifty-five obese pregnant women who participated in a weight-gain restriction program with weekly support during pregnancy and every 6 months during the two first years after childbirth. The control group consisted of 193 obese pregnant women.

Methods: Follow-up weight measurements were done at 12 and 24 months after childbirth.

Main Outcome Measures: Weight change in kilogram at 12 and 24 months postpartum. Results. A greater percentage of women in the intervention group showed a weight loss 24 months after delivery than did women in the control group at that same time (p = 0.034). Women in the intervention group who gained less than 7 kg during pregnancy had a significantly lower weight than the controls at the 24 months follow-up (p = 0.018). The mean value of weight change in the intervention group was -2.2 kg compared to +0.4 kg in the control group from early pregnancy to the follow-up 12 months after childbirth (p = 0.046).

Conclusions: An intervention program with weekly motivational support visits during pregnancy and every 6 months after childbirth seems to have an impact on weight gain up to 24 months after childbirth for those women in the intervention group who succeeded in restricting their gestational weight gain to less than 7 kg.

The aim of this study was to evaluate associations between anal sphincter pressure and stage of prolapse and bowel and prolapse symptoms among women undergoing prolapse surgery and to determine whether anal sphincter pressure could predict symptomatic and anatomical outcomes of prolapse surgery. Fortytwo women with pelvic organ prolapse (POP) stage 2-3 were included in this prospective longitudinal study. Pre- and postoperative evaluation by means of a symptom questionnaire, clinical examination and anorectal manometry. The vaginal prolapse surgery included at the very least posterior colporrhaphy. Analysis of variance and covariance and logistic regression models were used for statistical analyses. The anal sphincter pressure at rest and squeeze was significantly lower in women with the symptom vaginal protrusion than in the women without the symptom. No associations were found between anal sphincter pressure and the extent or degree of prolapse or subjective and anatomical outcomes of POP surgery. The prolapse symptom vaginal protrusion is associated with a low anal sphincter pressure but the anal sphincter pressure does not seem to predict the outcome of POP surgery, neither regarding symptoms nor anatomy. © Copyright K. Crafoord et al., 2012.

Objective: To determine prevalence of pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) symptoms in women six years after primary pelvic organ prolapse (POP) surgery and analyze predictive factors for these symptoms. Design. Cross-sectional observational study.

Setting: Three Swedish hospitals.

Sample: Women who underwent primary POP surgery in 1993 and had no subsequent POP surgery during the following six years.

Methods: Clinical data from patient records and a postal questionnaire concerning symptoms of PFD completed in 1999.

Main outcome measures: Prevalence of PFD symptoms, predictive factors. Results. Urinary incontinence episodes >= weekly were reported by 41%, feeling of vaginal bulging by 18% and solid stool incontinence by 15%. Thirty nine percent were sexually active; 15% refrained completely from sexual activity because of own discomfort or pain and 46% had no sexual activity due to lack of or sick partner. Discomfort or pain during sexual activity was experienced by 42%. Previous incontinence surgery and urinary incontinence prior to POP surgery were predictive factors for urinary incontinence. Anterior repair was protective for the postoperative symptoms of incomplete bladder and bowel emptying and vaginal bulging. Posterior repair was a risk factor for incomplete bowel emptying and solid stool incontinence. The association between posterior repair and discomfort or pain during sexual activity was not significant.

Conclusion: The prevalence of PFD symptoms six years after primary POP surgery seemed high. The extent of POP surgery was predictive for postoperative symptoms of urinary and bowel dysfunction but not for discomfort or pain during sexual activity.

Problem-based learning (PBL), combined with early patient contact, multiprofessional education and emphasis on development of communications skills, has become the basis for the medical curriculum at the Faculty of Health Sciences in Link ping (FHS), Sweden, which was started in 1986. Important elements in the curriculum are vertical integration, i.e. integration between the clinical and basic science parts of the curriculum and horizontal integration between different subject areas. This article discusses the importance of vertical integration in an undergraduate medical curriculum, according to experiences from the Faculty of Health Sciences in Link ping, and also give examples on how it has been implemented during the latest 15 years. Results and views put forward in published articles concerning vertical integration within undergraduate medical education are discussed in relation to the experiences in Link ping. Vertical integration between basic sciences and clinical medicine in a PBL setting has been found to stimulate profound rather than superficial learning, and thereby stimulates better understanding of important biomedical principles. Integration probably leads to better retention of knowledge and the ability to apply basic science principles in the appropriate clinical context. Integration throughout the whole curriculum entails a lot of time and work in respect of planning, organization and execution. The teachers have to be deeply involved and enthusiastic and have to cooperate over departmental borders, which may produce positive spin-off effects in teaching and research but also conflicts that have to be resolved. The authors believe vertical integration supports PBL and stimulates deep and lifelong learning.

Objective: Contraceptive counselling at the time of an abortion is crucial for preventing new unintended pregnancies especially in teenagers. What is discussed on this occasion should be recorded in the patient's file. In this study we examined what was documented in medical records (MRs) about previous contraceptive use and further plans as a reflection of what was discussed between the gynaecologist and the teenager.

Methods: Thirty-six MRs were consecutively selected in 2006. The study design was descriptive, retrospective and qualitative. Data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. The text areas were transcribed and analysed in several steps.

Results: Two themes were generated from the analysis: 'Contraceptive methods previously used' and 'Plan for future contraceptive use'. Information on previous contraceptive use was absent in ten MRs. In five MRs data about future contraceptive use were missing and eight teenagers had not started a contraceptive method at follow-up.

Conclusion: The MR often lacked information about contraception; this could be a reflection of insufficient contraceptive counselling at the abortion-visit. Both contraceptive counselling and documentation thereof must be improved to enhance contraceptive use in teenagers.

Objective To study the experiences of teenagers using contraceptives at an out-patient abortion clinic and to explore the reasons behind their choices. Methods Twelve teenagers who had applied for induced abortion were interviewed three to four weeks after abortion. The interviews comprised open questions about contraceptive experiences focusing on hindrance for contraceptive use. Qualitative content analysis was used. Results One theme was identified: Struggling with feelings of uncertainty and patterns of behaviour. Three categories emerged from the analysis. Uncertainty dealt with decisions and behaviours that varied with time and between the different individuals. Factors that influence contraceptive use dealt with the persons that the participants had discussed contraceptives with, how they acquired knowledge about contraceptive use and the nature of their behaviour. Anxiety dealt with the side effects of contraception and feelings of fear related to contraceptive use. Conclusion The participants had feelings of uncertainty, anxiety and fear towards contraceptive use which led to non use and inconsistent use. Guidance from health care providers and access to youth clinics varied and was unsatisfactory. Parents were supportive of contraceptive use but not active in the process of getting their child to initiate it. Friends and the Internet were the main sources for acquiring information.

Objective: To assess exercise habits and their relation to smoking habits and social and medical factors in postmenopausal women.

Methods: A cross-sectional study with a questionnaire to all 1324 55-56 year old women in Linkoping, Sweden.

Results: Response rate was 85%. About a third of the women took part in some kind of quite strenuous exercise for at least one hour a week. About a quarter worked out once a week; fewer did swimming and jogging. One in four women smoked. Women who used hormone replacement therapy, who were not smoking and who had a physically light occupation more often took part in strenuous sports. Women who had been treated for malignancies or with back problems exercised to the same extent as women in the general population.

Conclusion: About a third of the post-menopausal women exercised on a regular basis, if exercise involved in getting to and ti om work was not counted. Since regular physical exercise has many health benefits, more women should be encouraged to take part in regular physical exercise. Factors probably associated with level of education and general awareness of the importance of a healthy Lifestyle positively influenced the likelihood of these women to be physically active on a regular basis. A previous malignant disease or current back problems did not prevent women from taking part in exercise on a regular basis.

BACKGROUND: In many countries, persons seeking medical abortion with mifepristone followed by misoprostol can self-administer the second drug, misoprostol, at home, but self-administration of the first drug, mifepristone, is not allowed to the same extent.

OBJECTIVES: This systematic review aims to evaluate whether the efficacy, safety and women's satisfaction with abortion treatment are affected when mifepristone is self-administered at home instead of in a clinic.

SEARCH STRATEGY: A literature search covered CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE and APA PsycInfo in October 2022.

SELECTION CRITERIA: Eligible studies focused on persons undergoing medical abortion comparing home and in-clinic mifepristone intake. Outcomes included abortion effectiveness, compliance, acceptability, and practical consequences for women.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently assessed eligibility and risk of bias. Meta-analysis included similar studies while those differing in design were synthesised without meta-analysis.

RESULTS: Six studies (54 233 women) of medical abortions up to 10 weeks were included. One randomised controlled trial and one retrospective register study had moderate risk of bias, and four non-randomised clinical trials where women could choose the place for intake of mifepristone had serious risk of bias. There was no difference in abortion effectiveness (high confidence) or compliance (moderate confidence) between mifepristone administered at home or in-clinic. No differences in complications were detected between groups and most women who chose home administration of mifepristone expressed a preference for this approach.

CONCLUSIONS: Our systematic review demonstrates that the effectiveness of medical abortion is comparable regardless of mifepristone administration and intake, at home or in the clinic.

Objective: To investigate whether Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) affects oral desogestrel (etonogestrel) pharmacokinetics.

Design: Single centre, open label, phase-2 pharmacokinetic study.

Setting: University hospital of Linkoping, Sweden.

Population: Fourteen women with planned RYGB surgery were included; nine women aged 18-45 years using 75 micrograms desogestrel completed the study.

Methods: Steady-state etonogestrel pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters were measured on three occasions for each individual (at 8 6 weeks before surgery, and at 12 2 and 52 2 weeks after surgery). Each patient served as her own control. On each occasion, serum samples were collected during a 24-hour period and etonogestrel concentrations were determined with ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry.

Main outcome measures: Area under the plasma concentration time curve of etonogestrel (AUC(0-24 hours)).

Results: All women had significant postoperative weight loss. There were no significant differences in AUC(0-24 hours), terminal half-lives (t(1/2)), time to peak serum concentrations (T-max), or apparent oral clearances of etonogestrel (CLoral) before and after gastric bypass surgery on any occasion. Peak serum concentrations (C-max) increased after 52 +/- 2 weeks compared with preoperative values (0.817 ng/ml versus 0.590 ng/ml, P = 0.024).

Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the effects on desogestrel pharmacokinetics after RYGB. This study did not reveal any clinically significant changes in etonogestrel pharmacokinetics, suggesting that oral desogestrel may be used by women after RYGB surgery. The sample size was limited, however, and therefore the results should be interpreted cautiously.

At present, women are recommended to avoid pregnancy 12-18 months after bariatric surgery. Our aim in this study was to describe patterns of contraceptive use before and after gastric bypass in Sweden, and to describe the contraceptive counseling given preoperatively to women undergoing gastric bypass. In October 2012, a questionnaire was sent to 1000 Swedish women who all had undergone gastric bypass during 2010. The women had been included in the Scandinavian Obesity Surgery Register at time of surgery. The main outcome measures were patterns of use of contraception before and after bariatric surgery. The response rate was 57 %. The most commonly used contraceptive methods were intrauterine devices, 29 % preoperatively and 26 % postoperatively even though there was a postoperative switch from the copper intrauterine device to the levonorgestrel intrauterine system. Thirty percent did not use any contraceptive during the first 12 months after surgery. Sixty percent of the responders were aware of the recommendations to avoid pregnancy after surgery. Many women who undergo bariatric surgery are not using any contraceptive method despite the recommendation that they should avoid pregnancy for at least 12 months. There is a great need to improve contraceptive counseling for this growing group of women.

Background: Women are advised to primarily use non-oral contraceptive alternatives after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass since it is not known if the surgery affects the pharmacokinetics of oral contraceptives.

Methods: This is a multi-center, open label, phase 2 pharmacokinetic study performed at the University Hospital of Linkoping and the Clinical Trials Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. Fifteen women aged 18-40 years who had previously undergone Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery and reached a BMI < 30 were included. Fifteen BMI-matched women with no previous history of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery served as a control group. After administration of a single dose of a combined oral contraceptive containing 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol/0.15 mg levonorgestrel, serum levonorgestrel concentrations were determined during a 24-h period using ultra performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. The area under the plasma concentration time curve of levonorgestrel (AUC(0-24h)) was the main outcome measure.

Results: There were no significant differences in the studied pharmacokinetic parameters, AUC(0-24h), total AUC, peak serum concentration (C-max), time to peak serum concentrations (T-max), apparent oral clearances of levonorgestrel (CLoral), or terminal half-lives (t1/2) between the groups.

Conclusion: This is to our knowledge the first study to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of oral levonorgestrel in women with a BMI < 30 at least 1 year after RYGB compared with a BMI-matched group of women. We could not find any significant pharmacokinetic differences between the groups, suggesting that oral levonorgestrel may be used in non-obese women after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass once a stable body weight has been reached.

Objectives: To assess the current and previous use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and alternative remedies in a postmenopausal population and to relate HRT use to previous use of oral contraceptives.

Material and methods: All 1323 women living in Linkoping of 55 or 56 years old during 1995 were sent a questionnaire asking for data with relation to health and climacteric symptoms as well as to previous and current use of HRT, oral contraceptives and alternative remedies.

Results: Current use of HRT was more common among women who previously used oral contraceptives (41.3%) than among women who had never used oral contraceptives (23.1%). HRT users were also more often physically active, had undergone hysterectomy and had lighter occupation than non-users. Of all women 35% were current users of HRT, half of them for at least 2 years, whereas only 5% had tried HRT and abandoned therapy. Alternative remedies were used by 5% of the women as therapy for climacteric complaints, and about four times as many women had tried such therapy but abandoned it. The only characteristic about use of alternative medicines was that they were used less often by women who had been hysterectomized. No woman treated for breast cancer used HRT and only few of them used alternative remedies.

Conclusions: The prevalence of HRT use, as well as compliance, was high. Previous use of oral contraceptives probably affected the attitude towards using HRT.

To chart current and previous use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and alternative remedies in a postmenopausal population, in relation to previous oral contraceptive (OC) usage, all 1,323 55-56-year-old women living in Linköping in 1995 were sent a questionnaire concerning health status and climacteric symptoms, and previous and/or current use of HRT, OCs and alternative remedies. Current HRT was more common among previous OC users than among those who had never used OCs (41.4 vs. 23.1 percent). As compared with non-HRT users, HRT users were characterised by greater physical activity but less strenuous occupations, and a higher prevalence of hysterectomy. Of the series as a whole, 35 per cent were currently on HRT, half of them having been so for at least two years, and only 5 per cent had abandoned HRT after trying it for some time. Alternative remedies were used by 5 per cent of the women as therapy for climacteric complaints, but about four times as many women had tried such therapy and abandoned it. The sole characteristic feature of alternative remedy usage was that it was less common among hysterectomised women. Of women treated for breast cancer, none used HRT and few used alternative remedies. Thus, in this postmenopausal population, the prevalence of HRT was high, as was the level of compliance. Previous OC usage was probably a determinant of current attitudes toward HRT.

Integration mellan traditio-nella ämnen, som studeras sam-tidigt, t ex utgående från ett or-gansystem, och mellan klinikoch teori genom hela läkarut-bildningen stimulerar till förstå-else av principer och samman-hang snarare än till passivt inlä-rande av löst sammanhängandefakta. Hälsouniversitetet i Lin-köping har idag tio års erfaren-het av sådan horisontell och ver-tikal integration, och erfarenhe-ter och reflektioner delges här.

Perimenopausal women experience symptoms like hot flushes and night sweats, dyspareunia and urethritis, mood swings, and sleep disturbances. Furthermore, the decreasing ovarian steroid hormone production, including both 17 beta-estradiol and progesterone, affects several metabolic systems such as the turnover of bone tissue, lipoprotein metabolism, and also the direct estrogen effects on the vessel walls. Estrogen substitution treatment has been proven to counteract many of these symptoms and metabolic changes, but some women have medical contraindications for estrogen treatment while some other women prefer to avoid such treatment. There is thus a need for alternative treatment. Regular physical exercise counteracts some of the changes due to menopause. Thus, exercise protects against bone loss, changes in lipoprotein metabolism, hypertension, and may even decrease vasomotor symptoms. Exercise also has a positive impact on mental health. This article reviews data concerning the effects of exercise in peri- and postmenopausal women. Exercise may cause the same magnitude of change as that induced by estrogen therapy. Positive effects of exercise are influenced by other factors such as general awareness of lifestyle, diet, smoking habits. There is a need for long-term prospective, randomized studies before definitive conclusions can be drawn as to the benefits of exercise on well-being and various menopause and other age-related health factors.

During pregnancy, immunological tolerance toward the semiallogeneic fetus needs to be established while at the same time an effective immune defense must be maintained.1 The pregnancy-associated thymic involution reported in rodents2 has been suggested to support maternal immune regulation by reducing the output of potentially harmful TH cells. However, the functional importance of this thymic involution remains unclear and it is not known whether it even occurs in humans.3 In fact, the role of thymus during human pregnancy and in pregnancy-associated tolerance remains largely unknown,4 albeit a role for thymic-derived regulatory T (Treg) cells in pregnancy complications has been suggested,4 supporting a role for thymus in immune regulation during human pregnancy. The aim of this study was to assess the role of thymus in TH-cell regulation during human pregnancy by analyzing the output of different TH-cell populations.

Objectives: To assess changes in women's attitudes towards risk and benefits of, and use of hormone treatment in the menopausal transition (HT) before and after Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) and the oestrogen and progestin trial of Women's Health Initiative (WHI).

Methods: Postal questionnaires to all women 53 and 54 years of age in a Swedish community in 1999 (n = 1.760) and 2003 (n = 1.733). Data on sales of HT were collected from the database of the National Corporation of Swedish Pharmacies.

Results: The fraction of women reporting current use of HT fell from 40.5 to 25.3% (P < 0.001, chi(2)-test) both by fewer women starting and more women discontinuing treatment. This corresponded to a decrease in dispensation of HT in Linkoping and nationwide for the same age group. The fraction of women who had tried complementary treatment for climacteric discomfort, increased from 9.6 to 18.1% for natural remedies (p < 0.001, chi(2)-test). Women perceived HT as more risky and less beneficial in 2003 as compared with 1999 (both p < 0.001, chi(2)-test). The most frequent source of information about HT during the last year before the 2003 questionnaire were newspaper or magazines (43.8%) and television or radio (31.7%).

Conclusions: The decreased use of HT in the community correlated with pronounced changes in the attitudes towards HT. Media were a more frequent source of information than health care personnel. This indicates that media reports about major clinical studies might have influenced the use of HT among women

Objectives: To prospectively investigate if women with multiple sclerosis (MS) experience changes in MS-symptoms in relation to cyclical hormonal changes.

Methods: Sixty-three women with MS, either with regular, spontaneous menstrual cycles or taking combined oral contraceptives (COCs), were asked to score their MS symptoms every day during three cycles. Symptom scores were analysed in relation to different phases of the spontaneous menstrual- or pill-driven cycle.

Results: Twenty-three women completed the score record. Among the 16 women who were not using a COC there were no significant differences in symptom scores between the phases of the menstrual cycle. The seven women taking a COC reported significantly higher symptom score points for weakness, numbness and tiredness during the pill-free interval compared with the phase during which they took the COC daily.

Conclusions: This prospective study appears to contradict earlier retrospective studies regarding variations in MS symptoms in relation to the menstrual cycle in women who are not using a COC. The lower symptom scores during the three weeks of pill taking suggest a positive effect of the steroids on the manifestations of MS. Further studies concerning both short-and long-term effects of OC-use on MS symptoms are needed.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether age of onset of multiple sclerosis is related to use of combined oral contraceptives and/or timing of childbirth. The results showed that use of combined oral contraceptives and childbirth before the first multiple sclerosis symptom was correlated to a higher mean age at the onset of the disease.

Objective: To investigate if women with multiple sclerosis (MS) experience changes in MS symptoms related to pregnancy, the postpartum period, menopause or use of oral contraception (OC) or postmenopausal hormone therapy (HT).

Methods: Women with diagnosed MS were recruited from registers of all MS patients known in two counties of Sweden, respectively. Ninety-four women were recruited in Linkoping and 52 in Sundsvall. The women answered a questionnaire with categorized alternatives regarding their MS symptoms related to menstruation, pregnancy, delivery, menopause and use of OC 41 or FIT.

Results: Forty percent of the women reported worsening of MS symptoms related to menopause, whereas 56% reported no change of symptoms and 5% reported decreased symptoms. More than a fourth of the women reported decreased symptoms during pregnancy, 64% reported unchanged symptoms and 10% reported increased symptoms. Every third woman reported increased symptoms after delivery, 59% reported no change and 5% reported decreased symptoms. Few women reported changes in MS symptoms in relation to use of HT or OC.

Conclusion: The presented data indicate a relationship between high-oestrogen states and ameliorated symptoms whereas low-oestrogen states seem to relate to a worsening of the disease. A majority of women, however, reported no changes in MS symptoms in relation to the different oestrogen states.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence of infections with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical dysplasia, and the clearance rate of HPV infections, in users of different kinds of intrauterine devices (IUDs) and other contraceptive methods.

METHODS: A cross-sectional register-based study including 16,181 women aged 30-49 years participating in the screening programme for cervical cancer in a Swedish County in 2017-2018. Data on contraception from screening records was paired with the HPV test results, cytological and histological follow-up tests and subsequent HPV test.

RESULTS: There was no difference in the risk of being HPV positive, or histological HSIL+, between users of copper-containing IUDs and women with no reported use of contraception. Use of levonorgestrel intrauterine system and hormonal contraception were associated with higher odds for HPV infection in age-adjusted models (aOR 1.21; 95% CI 1.04-1.41, and aOR 1.41; 95% CI 1.22-1.63, respectively) and for HSIL+ (aOR 1.45; 95% CI 1.02-2.06, and aOR 1.56; 95% CI 1.13-2.16, respectively). No significant differences were found in HPV clearance rates.

CONCLUSIONS: Reported use of levonorgestrel intrauterine system and hormonal contraception, but not use of copper IUD, was associated with a higher prevalence of HPV infections and histological HSIL + compared to no reported use of contraception.